1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to re-writeable non-volatile computer memory having very small feature sizes.
2. Description of the Related Art
Memory can either be classified as volatile or non-volatile. Volatile memory is memory that loses its contents when the power is turned off. In contrast, non-volatile memory does not require a continuous power supply to retain information. Most non-volatile memories use solid-state memory devices as memory elements.
Since the 1960s, a large body of literature has evolved that describes switching and memory effects in metal-insulator-metal structures with thin insulators. One of the seminal works was “New Conduction and Reversible Memory Phenomena in Thin Insulating Films” by J. G. Simmons and R. R. Verderber in 301 Proc. Roy. Soc. 77-102 (1967), incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. Although the mechanisms described by Simmons and Verderber have since been cast into doubt, their contribution to the field is great.
However, no one has successfully implemented a metal-insulator-metal structure into a commercial solid-state memory device. In the text “Oxides and Oxide Films,” volume 6, edited by A. K. Vijh (Marcel Drekker 1981) 251-325, incorporated herein by reference for all purposes, chapter 4, written by David P. Oxley, is entirely devoted to “Memory Effects in Oxide Films.” In that text, Oxley says “It is perhaps saddening to have to record that, even after 10 years of effort, the number of applications for these oxide switches is so limited.” He goes on to describe a “need for caution before any application is envisaged. This caution can only be exercised when the physics of the switching action is understood; this, in turn, must await a full knowledge of the transport mechanisms operating in any switch for which a commercial use is envisaged.”
In 2002, over twenty years after writing that chapter, Oxley revisited the subject in “The Electroformed metal-insulator-metal structure: A comprehensive model” by R. E. Thurstans and D. P. Oxley, 35 J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 802-809, incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. In that article, the authors describe a model that identifies the conduction process as “trap-controlled and thermally activated tunneling between metal islands produced in the forming process.” “Forming” (or “electroforming”) is described as “the localized filamentary movement of metallic anode material through the dielectric, induced by the electric field. Here it is important to note that the evaporated dielectric may contain voids and departures from stoichiometry. When resulting filaments through the dielectric carry sufficient current, they rupture to leave a metal island structure embedded in the dielectric. Electronic conduction is possible through this structure by activating tunneling.”
However, the authors caution, “The forming process is complex and inherently variable. Also tunneling barriers are susceptible to changes in their characteristics when exposed to water vapour, organic species and oxygen . . . Thus, device characteristics can never be expected to be produced consistently or be stable over long periods without passivation, effective encapsulation and a better understanding of the dynamics of the forming process.”
In seemingly unrelated research, certain conductive metal oxides (CMOs), have been identified as exhibiting a memory effect after being exposed to an electronic pulse. U.S. Pat. No. 6,204,139, issued Mar. 20, 2001 to Liu et al., incorporated herein by reference for all purposes, describes some perovskite materials that exhibit memory characteristics. The perovskite materials are also described by the same researchers in “Electric-pulse-induced reversible resistance change effect in magnetoresistive films,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 76, No. 19, 8 May 2000, and “A New Concept for Non-Volatile Memory: The Electric-Pulse Induced Resistive Change Effect in Colossal Magnetoresistive Thin Films,” in materials for the 2001 Non-Volatile Memory Technology Symposium, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes.
In U.S. Pat. No. 6,531,371 entitled “Electrically programmable resistance cross point memory” by Hsu et al, incorporated herein by reference for all purposes, resistive cross point memory devices are disclosed along with methods of manufacture and use. The memory device comprises an active layer of perovskite material interposed between upper electrodes and lower electrodes.
Similarly, the IBM Zurich Research Center has also published three technical papers that discuss the use of metal oxide material for memory applications: “Reproducible switching effect in thin oxide films for memory applications,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 77, No. 1, 3 Jul. 2000, “Current-driven insulator-conductor transition and non-volatile memory in chromium-doped SrTiO3 single crystals,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 78, No. 23, 4 Jun. 2001, and “Electrical current distribution across a metal-insulator-metal structure during bistable switching,” Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 90, No. 6, 15 Sep. 2001, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes.
There are continuing efforts to incorporate solid state memory devices into a commercial non-volatile RAM.
It is to be understood that, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate like structural elements. Also, it is understood that the depictions in the FIGS. are not necessarily to scale.